tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-82546949596645366372024-03-13T17:19:21.861-07:00KUMPULAN MAKALAH PSIKOLOGIKUMPULAN LITERATUR MAKALAH PSIKOLOGIandygohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12000416256007837858noreply@blogger.comBlogger5125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8254694959664536637.post-49881118810382090362015-12-23T03:15:00.000-08:002016-01-01T08:04:29.971-08:00BLOG KUMPULAN LENGKAP LITERATUR MAKALAH PSIKOLOGISelamat Datang,<br />
Di Halaman Tunggal yang hanya menyediakan Makalah, Literatur dan Artikel Lainnya tentang Psikologi<br />
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File-File dihalaman ini adalah kumpulan file <i>Makalah Psikologi</i> dan literatur lainnya di blog ini yang terdiri dari <b><span style="color: red; font-size: large;"> 250 File</span></b>.<br />
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Kami telah membuat layanan <b>Download Cepat dan Langsung ini</b> untuk mendapatkan <b>Seluruh</b> <b><u>kumpulan makalah psikologi</u> dalam format ms. word (doc dan docx)</b> secara <u>mudah dan langsung di download dihalaman ini</u> dengan<u> </u><b><span style="color: red; font-size: large;"><u>biaya jasa Rp.10.000,-</u> untuk SEMUA FILE (250 File) di BLog Ini. </span><span style="color: #38761d;"><span style="font-size: large;"><u>dengan</u></span><span style="font-size: large;"> Transfer Pulsa/Pengiriman Nomor Voucher Pulsa/Pengisian <u>Pulsa Telkomsel Senilai 10 Ribu.</u></span></span></b><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><u>Biaya password kami kenakan sebagai ganti biaya jasa untuk pengumpulan file-file di halaman ini hingga dapat di-online-kan dan digunakan dengan mudah.</u></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0c343d; font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Berbagai File Makalah Psikologi dapat anda cari secara gratis di internet, kami hanya menyediakan Layanan Jasa Download Langsung ini yang kiranya dapat <b><u>menghemat Biaya Browsing, Waktu Dan Tenaga</u></b> Anda untuk mencari <i>kumpulan Literatur Tentang Psikologi</i> yang mudah di download, sehingga anda dapat memiliki perpustakaan file tentang psikologi yang memungkinkan anda tidak perlu lagi susah mencarinya di waktu yang akan datang baik untuk keperluan pembuatan Tugas Kuliah, Makalah ataupun sebagai referensi pustaka.</span><br />
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<b><u>Berikut Adalah Judul-Judul File Literatur Dan Makalah Psikologi Di Blog Ini :</u></b><br />
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1.Hakikat Psikologi.docx<br />
2.Sejarah Aliran Psikologi.docx<br />
3.Peran Psikologi dalam Perusahaan.doc<br />
4.DASAR PERILAKU INDIVIDU.docx<br />
5.Pengentasan Kemiskinan Dan Pendekatan Psikologi Sosial.docx<br />
6.Pengenalan Psikologi Kognitif.docx<br />
7.Pengantar-Psikologi-Transpersonal.docx<br />
8.Pengertian Dan Sejarah Psikologi Komunikasi.docx<br />
9.Konsep Dasar Psikologi.docx<br />
10.PERSPEKTIF_PSIKOLOGIS_Dalam Memahami Perkembangan.docx<br />
11.RUANGLINGKUP-PSIKOLOGI-PENDIDIKAN.docx<br />
12.PENGARUH PSIKOLOGI KONSUMEN TERHADAP KEPUTUSAN PEMBELIAN KEMBALI.docx<br />
13.PSIKOLOGI-INDUSTRI Dan ORGANISASI.docx<br />
14.Mengatasi Kesulitan Belajar Dengan Pendekatan Psikologi Kognitif.docx<br />
15.SISITEM PENGELOLAAN TES PSIKOLOGI.docx<br />
16.Aplikasi_Psikologi_Sosial_dalam_bidang_hukum.docx<br />
17.Psikologi Nusantara - Kesanakah Kita Menuju.docx<br />
18.Pemahaman Psikologi Masyarakat Indonesia Sebagai Upaya Menjembatani Permasalahan Silang Budaya.doc<br />
19.Landasan Teori Psikologi kognitif.docx<br />
20.Landasan Teori Psikologi Gangguan Pribadi.docx<br />
21.Landasan Teori Psikologi.docx<br />
22.Landasan Teori Psikologi 2.docx<br />
23.Psikologi Humanistik dan Aplikasinya dalam Pendidikan.docx<br />
24.POLA PERILAKU KEBERSIHAN - STUDI PSIKOLOGI LINGKUNGAN TENTANG PENANGGULANGAN SAMPAH PERKOTAAN.docx<br />
25.Aspek2 Psikologi yang Mempengaruhi Belajar Dan Pembelajaran.docx<br />
26.Psikologi Bagian Dari Ilmu Faal.docx<br />
27.Psikologi Sebagai Ilmu Mandiri.docx<br />
28.Pengantar Psikologi Umum.docx<br />
29.Pengantar Psikologi Faal.docx<br />
30.Etika Penelitian Psikologi.docx<br />
31.Sebuah Paradigma Baru Bagi Psikologi Jawa.docx<br />
32.Apa sih Psikologi itu.docx<br />
33.aliran-fungsionalisme.docx<br />
34-psikologi-pembelajaran-matematika-sma.docx<br />
35.PSIKOLOGI DALAM PERKEMBANGAN ARSITEKTUR.docx<br />
36.Memahami Psikologi Anak.docx<br />
37.MEMAHAMI PSIKOLOGI PERKEMBANGAN ANAK BAGI PENGEMBANGAN ASPEK SENI ANAK USIA DINI.docx<br />
38.Aspek Psikologis yang Berpengaruh dalam Kebenaran Kesaksian.docx<br />
39.skala psikologi.docx<br />
40.sejarah dan aliran psikologi.docx<br />
41.Psikologi Persepsi Atensi Dan Memori.docx<br />
42.Hakikat Psikologi.docx<br />
43.Resiliensi pada film Changeling serta kaitannya dengan kode etik Psikologi.docx<br />
44.teori-belajar-kognitivisme.docx<br />
45.teori prilaku.doc<br />
46.SPIRITUALITAS DALAM PERSPEKTIF PSIKOLOGI POSITIF.doc<br />
47.pobia.docx<br />
48.makalah-kecemasan-akademik.docx<br />
49.Racun Psikologi.docx<br />
50.Ringkasan disertasi-KECERDASAN EMOSI DAN KEPRIBADIAN SEHAT DALAM KONTEKS BUDAYA JAWA DI YOGYAKARTA.doc<br />
51.TEORI MODERNISASI.docx<br />
52.Rokok tak Bisa Membuat Rileks.docx<br />
53.Pengertian Dan Ruang Lingkup Psikologi SDM.doc<br />
54.Modul Mata Kuliah-Psikologi Komunikasi.doc<br />
55.Apakah Psikologi Itu.doc<br />
56.Psikologi Sebagai Ilmu Yang Berdiri Sendiri.doc<br />
57.Teori Behaviorisme.doc<br />
58.Aliran Psikologi Fungsionalisme.doc<br />
59.Psikologi Kontemporer.doc<br />
60.Refleksisme.doc<br />
61.Psikologi Gestalt dan Kognitif.doc<br />
62.Psikologi Holastik dan Humanistik.doc<br />
63.Psikologi Di Eropa Asia dan Indonesia.doc<br />
64.Stress Dan Coping Stress.doc<br />
65.Psikologi Industri Dan Organisasi.doc<br />
66.Psikologi Pendidikan.doc<br />
67.KRITIK TEORI PSIKOLOGI.doc<br />
68.Pembuatan Film tentang Skizopernia.docx<br />
69.aborsi.docx<br />
70.abraham-harold-maslow.docx<br />
71.Aplikasi Psikologi kepribadian Dalam 10 ranah aplikasi psikologi yg terpenting.doc<br />
72.Anak-Laki-Dekat-dengan-Ibu-Minim-Perilaku-Negatif-Saat-Dewasa.docx<br />
73.Anak-Sulit-Tidur-Bisa-Jadi-Pecandu.docx<br />
74.Rahasia tes psikologi.docx<br />
75.apa-itu-karakter.docx<br />
76.Aplikasi Pelatihan Internet-Macam alat tes psikologi.docx<br />
77.Pengertian Psikologi secara umum.doc<br />
78.MAKALAH PERKEMBANGAN EMOSI PSIKOLOGI PENDIDIKAN.doc<br />
79.Hubungan Kepercayaan Diri dengan Kemampuan berbicara didepan umum pada mahasiswa.docx<br />
80.Artikel-Kepribadian.docx<br />
81.ASESMEN dalam PSIKOLOGI KLINIS.doc<br />
82.ASPEK_PSIKOLOGI_DALAM_SENAM.docx<br />
83.aspek psikologi sebagai pengembangan perubahan yg direncanakan.docx<br />
84.ASPEK ASPEK PSIKOLOGI DALAM SUKSES KARIER.doc<br />
85.PERILAKU FISIK DAN MENTAL.docx<br />
86.Psikologi Olahraga.docx<br />
87.PSIKOLOGI SOSIAL.docx<br />
88.LANDASAN PSIKOLOGI PENDIDIKAN.docx<br />
89.Beberapa Pendekatan Psikologi Kesehatan Reproduksi.docx<br />
90.PSIKOLOGI ALIRAN BEHAVIORISME.docx<br />
91.Psikologi Industri.docx<br />
92.Berpikiran_Negatif.docx<br />
93.biografi albert einstein revisi makna jenius.docx<br />
94.PSIKONEUROIMUNOLOGI.docx<br />
95.casis_rangkuman-dan-tanggapan-psikologi-kepemimpinan.docx<br />
96.History Psikologi.docx<br />
97.PSIKOLOGI KEREKAYASAAN.doc<br />
98.Kreativitas.docx<br />
99.TINJAUAN PERILAKU SEKSUAL MENYIMPANG DALAM SUDUT PANDANG PSIKOLOGI KRIMINAL.docx<br />
100.Cluster C- Anxious-Fearful Personality Disorder.docx<br />
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101.Depresi.docx<br />
102.SISTEM PAKAR DALAM BIDANG PSIKOLOGI.docx<br />
103.Makalah Matrikulasi Psikologi.docx<br />
104.macam-macam bidang psikologi.docx<br />
105.TEORI MOTIVASI.docx<br />
106.Agresi.doc<br />
107.Permohonan Surat Ijin Praktik Psikologi.doc<br />
108.formulir_anggota_himpsi.doc<br />
109.psikologi.doc<br />
110.HAKIM_AGUNG_DAN_PSIKOLOGI_PENSIUN.docx<br />
111.Hand_out_perkuliahan Pengantar Perkuliahan.docx<br />
112.Psikologi Kognitif dan Emosi.docx<br />
113.zat-adiktik-dan-psikotropika.docx<br />
114.DEFINISI PSIKOLOGI SOSIAL.doc<br />
115.Arti Psikologi .doc<br />
116.Psikologi Sosial.doc<br />
117.Sejarah Psikologi Kliniks.doc<br />
118.herbert a simon .docx<br />
119.hiv-aids.docx<br />
120.pengaruh musik .doc<br />
121.ilmu jiwa pendidikan.doc<br />
122.interaksi sosial.docx<br />
123.Apa itu psikologi.docx<br />
124.Sejarah Psikologi.docx<br />
125.IMPLIKASI TEORI SOSIAL KRITIS TERHADAP PERKEMBANGAN RISET PSIKOLOGI.docx<br />
126.INTEGRASI PSIKOTERAPI DALAM DUNIA MEDIS.docx<br />
127.Peran Strategis Psikologi Perkembangan Dalam Mendukung Pencapaian MDG s 2015.docx<br />
128.Psikologi dan Perkembangan Anak.docx<br />
129.Psikologi Perkembangan.docx<br />
130.MODEL-MODEL PSIKOLOGI KEBHINNEKATUNGGALIKAAN DAN PENERAPANNYA DI INDONESIA.docx<br />
131.Perspektif Psikologi Kesehatan Reproduksi.docx<br />
132.kekerasan terhadap anak.docx<br />
133.KODE ETIK Psikologi Indonesia.docx<br />
134.kode-etik-psikologi.docx<br />
135.Konsep_Dasar_Psikologi.docx<br />
136.Konsep_Dasar_Psikologi.docx<br />
137.PENGANTAR PSIKOLOGI INDUSTRI DAN.docx<br />
138.KONTRIBUSI PSIKOLOGI DALAM PENEGAKAN HUKUM DI INDONESIA.docx<br />
139.TERAPI PSIKOLOGI.docx<br />
140.Sumbangan Psikologi pada Hukum.docx<br />
141.Psikologi Lingkungan.docx<br />
142.PSIKOLOGI ARSITEKTUR POST MODERN.docx<br />
143.LANDASAN PSIKOLOGIS DALAM PENDIDIKAN.docx<br />
144.Life style dari sudut pandang Psikologi.docx<br />
145.PSIKOLOGI PENDIDIKAN.docx<br />
146.PsikologiTimur.docx<br />
147.Makalah Gabungan Psikologi Olahraga.docx<br />
148.memahami-psikologi-olah-raga-bagi-atlet.docx<br />
149.Mencermati Perjalanan Integrasi Psikologi dan Teologi.docx<br />
150.HUBUNGAN PENERIMAAN DIRI TERHADAP PERUBAHAN FISIK DENGAN KECEMASAN MENGHADAPI MENOPAUSE.docx<br />
151.psikologi 4 me.docx<br />
152.Psiko Pendidikan.docx<br />
153.KIAT GURU DALAM MENGATASI PSIKOLOGI REMAJA.docx<br />
154.Beberapa jenis ilmu psikologi dan kegunaannya.docx<br />
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155.HASIL SURVEI BIDANG IV HIMPSI JATIM.doc<br />
156.intervensi-psikodinamika-dalam-pekerjaan-sosial-klinis.docx<br />
157.makalah-analisis-konsultasi-psikologi.doc<br />
158.isd-dalam-psikologi.docx<br />
159.kajian-psikologi-lintas-budaya.doc<br />
160.PENGARUH FAKTOR PSIKOLOGI DAN NILAI TERHADAP LOYALITAS NASABAH DENGAN KEPUASAN SEBAGAI VARIABEL INTERVENING.docx<br />
161.kasus pelanggaran kode etik psikolog RG.doc<br />
162.KASUS PELANGGARAN KODE ETIK PSIKOLOGI.doc<br />
163.9 judul skripsi psikologi.docx<br />
164.Tanya Jawab kepribadian.docx<br />
165.Kepribadian Seseorang Berdasar Urutan Kelahiran.docx<br />
166.kepribadian-menurut-golongan-darah.docx<br />
167.Ketika Resiliensi diperlukan oleh seorang Psikolog.docx<br />
168.KODE ETIK PSIKOLOGI KASUS EKSPERIMEN MALARIA.docx<br />
169.kode-etik-psikologi-indonesia.doc<br />
170.Kodet_draft Reni forensik.doc<br />
171.TEORI KOMITMEN ORGANISASI .doc<br />
172.KOMPETENSI RELAWAN PENANGANAN ASPEK PSIKOLOGIS PENYINTAS.doc<br />
173.penggolongan_dan_assessment_perilaku_abnormal.docx<br />
174.SOAL-SOAL PSIKOLOGI INDUSTRI DAN ORGANISASI.doc<br />
175.Landasan Teori Psikologi.doc<br />
176.laporan UPH Debat.docx<br />
177.LAPORAN HASIL PEMERIKSAAN PSIKOLOGI.doc<br />
178.LAPORAN HASIL PEMERIKSAAN PSIKOLOGI 2.doc<br />
179.LEADERSHIP.doc<br />
180.Lesbian dalam Pandangan Psikiatrik.docx<br />
181.Metode Dalam PSIKOLOGI.doc<br />
182.makalah psikologi anak & remaja.doc<br />
183.Dampak Narkoba Pada Psikologi dan Kesehatan Masyarakat.doc<br />
184.KARAKTERISTIK PESERTA DIDIK.docx<br />
185.Perspektif Psikologi Program Akselerasi Bagi Anak Berbakat Akademik.docx<br />
186.Biometrik-Wajah.docx<br />
187.makalah-pembelajaran.docx<br />
188.makalah-psikologi-gizi-dewasa.docx<br />
189.makalah-PSIKOLOGI-NEWTONIAN.doc<br />
190.KONTRIBUSI PSIKOLOGI PERKEMBANGAN PESERTA DIDIK.docx<br />
191.makalah-psikologi-tentang-konsep-dasar-emosi.docx<br />
192.makalah-psikopen-teori-belajar.docx<br />
193.RATIONAL EMOTIVE THERAPY.docx<br />
194.MANFAAT MEMPELAJARI PSIKOLOGI BELAJAR.doc<br />
195.manusia-dalam-perspektif-psikologi.doc<br />
196.MASALAH-DALAM-ERGONOMI-DAN-KAITANNYA-DALAM-ILMU-PSIKOLOGI1.doc<br />
197.memahami-masa-remaja.docx<br />
198.memori.docx<br />
199.menghadapi-kecemasan-dalam-permainan-basket.docx<br />
200.menopause.docx<br />
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<br />
201.metode-pendekatan-psikologi.doc<br />
202.evaluasi pembelajaran.docx<br />
203.modul-histeria.docx<br />
204.OLIMPIADE PSIKOLOGI.doc<br />
205.Pelanggaran Kode Etik Psikologi dalam Perilaku Seksual terhadap Klien.docx<br />
206.pembelajaran-humanistik.docx<br />
207.APAKAH STRESS MEMPENGARUHI IMUNITAS DAN MENYEBABKAN PENYAKIT ARTERI KORONER.docx<br />
208.pengantar-psikologi-perkembangan.doc<br />
209.Persepsi.docx<br />
210.pengaruh-penerapan-hukum-terhadap-kemandirian-siswa-dalam-belajar-dan-interaksi-sosial-di-sekolah.docx<br />
211.PENGERTIAN INTELEGENSI.docx<br />
212.Pengindraan (sensasi) dan persepsi.docx<br />
213.pentingnya-resiliensi-dan-emosi-diri.docx<br />
214.PERILAKU DAN PERBEDAAN INDIVIDUAL.docx<br />
215.Perkembangan Psikologi Anak Dalam Kehidupan Sosial.doc<br />
216.JEAN PIAGET.docx<br />
217.pokok-bahasan-psikologi-umum.doc<br />
218.presen-psikobel.docx<br />
219.PROPOSAL BIDANG PSIKOLOGI PENDIDIKAN UNTUK SD.docx<br />
220.psi kesehatan_kanker serviks.docx<br />
221.PSIKOLOGI ABNORMAL.doc<br />
222.psikologi kesehatan _ depresi.docx<br />
223.PSIKOLOGI EMOSI.doc<br />
224.Psikologi - perpustakaan.doc<br />
225.psikologi-dan-lingkaran-kekuasaan.doc<br />
226.PSIKOLOGIEVOLUSIONER.doc<br />
227.Peranan filsafat bagi Perkembangan Ilmu Psikologi.doc<br />
228.psikologi kelompok-konflik kelompok.docx<br />
229.psikolog imemaham ibeberapa reaks ikebencian.doc<br />
230.psikologi-humanistik.doc<br />
231.psikologi-pembelajaran.docx<br />
232.psikologi-perkembangan-anak-usia-dini.docx<br />
233.psikologi-perkembangan-pada-usia-lansia.docx<br />
234.psikotes2-untuk-rsbi.docx<br />
235.rangkuman hasil diskusi peran psikolog ipasca teror bom.doc<br />
236.konsep diri.docx<br />
237.review buku dialog psikologi indonesia.doc<br />
238.Rincian Biaya Kuliah Program Magister Sains Psikologi Sosial Kesehatan.doc<br />
239.sehat-mental-menurut-badan-kesehatan-dunia.docx<br />
240.sekilas-sejarah-perkembangan-psikologi.doc<br />
241.sikap-konsumen.docx<br />
242.sosiologi-keluarga.docx<br />
243.psikologi anak..doc<br />
244.stress.docx<br />
245.TEORI KOGNITIF SOSIAL BANDURA.docx<br />
246.teori-belajar-bruner.docx<br />
247.teori-belajar-psikologi-kognitif.docx<br />
248.teori-dienes.docx<br />
249.teori-medan.docx<br />
250.teori-perls.docx<br />
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2016andygohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12000416256007837858noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8254694959664536637.post-38335698194409339972015-12-20T21:42:00.000-08:002015-12-22T21:42:20.934-08:00KRITIK TEORI PSIKOLOGI<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kritik Empiris</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Teori
adalah abstraksi yang bersifat umum dan formal dari hasil-hasil temuan
lapangan. Dalam psikologi, teori-teori itu sering merupakan abstraksi dan
generalisasi dari suatu sampel penelitian terhadap perilaku sejumlah manusia di
suatu masyarakat dan kebudayaan tertentu. Suatu teori juga dibangun di atas
landasan postulat dan asumsi-asumsi tertentu yang seringkali berbeda antara
satu dan lain teori (Suriasumantri, 1984). Dengan demikian pada gilirannya kita
bisa mempersoalkan apakah suatu teori mampu menjelaskan suatu kenyataan
lapangan tertentu atau dapat berlaku dalam kenyataan lapangan dengan <i>setting</i> budaya yang berbeda dari budaya
asal teori tersebut dirumuskan. Demikian juga terhadap konsep-konsep yang
mendasari teori tersebut, dan metode penerapan teori tersebut.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Untuk
contoh kritik empiris ini dapat dikemukakan temuan antropolog Margaret Mead
(1928) di masyarakat Samoa, yaitu bahwa
anak-anak remaja Samoa ternyata tidak mengalami apa yang dikenal sebagai
<i>storm and stress</i> dalam masa
perkembangan mereka. Padahal konsep <i>storm
and stress</i> yang merupakan hasil temuan pada anak-anak remaja di Amerika
Serikat waktu itu dianggap sebagai konsep yang universal, berlaku di mana saja.
Kultur di Samoa, rupanya berbeda dengan di Amerika, memungkinkan masa remaja –
yang merupakan peralihan dari masa kanak-kanak ke masa dewasa – berlangsung
secara mulus saja, tanpa <i>storm and stress</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Contoh
lain adalah temuan antropolog Ruth Benedict, bahwa dorongan berkompetisi yang
oleh para ahli psikologi semula dianggap sebagai insting, dus bersifat
universal, ternyata juga sangat tergantung pada sistem kebudayaan. Pada
masyarakat suku Indian Zuni ternyata tidak ditemukan adanya semangat kompetisi.
Yang ada adalah semangat untuk selalu membantu orang lain yang mengalami
kesulitan. Di <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">sana</st1:city></st1:place>
masyarakat tidak melihat perlunya bersaing untuk mengalahkan orang lain.
Demikian juga pada suku Hopi, Arapesh, dan <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Pueblo</st1:city></st1:place>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Contoh
lain lagi adalah kritik empiris terhadap konsep-konsep psikoanalisa (Sigmund
Freud) dan teori-teori yang mendasarkan diri pada konsep-konsep tersebut.
Betapapun kaburnya konsep-konsep psikoanalisa tersebut, sejumlah ahli telah
berhasil melakukan studi empirik yang dalam keseluruhan hasilnya ternyata
menyangkal kebenaran konsep-konsep dan teori-teori itu. Branislav Malinowski
(1927) tidak memperoleh bukti adanya apa yang dinamakan konflik oedipal di
antara penduduk pulau Torbiand. Prothro (1961) dalam studinya terhadap
praktik-praktik pendidikan anak di Libanon memperoleh bukti bahwa karakter anal
sesungguhnya tak berhubungan dengan <i>toilet
training</i> seperti yang diteorikan Freud. Dan, Victor E. Frankl (1964) lewat
serangkaian penelitiannya memperoleh kesimpulan bahwa tak ada hubungan antara
citra ayah positif dangan keyakinan agama seseorang dan sikapnya terhadap
Tuhan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kritik Epistemologis<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Epistemologi
(filsafat pengetahuan) adalah pembahasan logis tentang apa yang mungkin
diketahui oleh manusia, dan bagaimana cara manusia mendapatkan pengetahuan.
Epistemologi, yang merupakan inti sentral setiap pandangan dunia (<i>world view</i>) ini menyibukkan diri dengan
pertanyaan-pertanyaan mengenai apa sumber-sumber pengetahuan; apa hakekat,
jangkauan, dan wilayah pengetahuan; bahkan tentang apakah memang dimungkinkan
manusia memperoleh pengetahuan; dan kalau iya sampai pada tahap mana
pengetahuan yang dapat ditangkap manusia (Sahakin & Sahakin, 1965).
Tercakup di dalam epistemologi adalah pembahasan mengenai filsafat ilmu yang
secara spesifik mengaji hakekat pengetahuan ilmiah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Karena
semua pembahasan filsafati itu bersendikan logika, maka yang dimaksud dengan
kritik epistemologis adalah pengujian apakah suatu teori mengandung kontradiksi
tertentu dalam konstruknya, atau apakah dalam diri teori itu memiliki
konsistensi logis atau tidak. Hal yang sama dilakukan terhadap konsep-konsep
yang mendasari suatu teori. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Berikut
ini beberapa contohnya. Pandangan statistikal atau pendekatan grafik-kurva-normal
adalah salah satu norma untuk menjawab pertanyaan: siapakah yang normal dan
siapakah yang abnormal secara psikologis? Berdasarkan konsep ini disimpulkan
bahwa orang-orang yang normal adalah orang-orang yang berperilaku psikologis
sebagaimana yang dilakukan oleh kebanyakan orang. Mereka, yang normal, adalah
yang terkumpul di tengah grafik yang berbentuk lonceng itu. Pandangan seperti
ini mengandung kesulitan logis, dikarenakan konsekuensinya kita harus
menganggap orang-orang yang emosinya luar biasa stabil, misalnya, sebagai
orang-orang abnormal, sama seperti orang-orang sub-normal yang mengalami
gangguan emosional gawat atau orang-orang neurotik.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Norma
lain, dari sudut pandangan kultural, konsep keabnormalan jauh lebih kabur lagi.
Ini disebabkan karena pandangan tersebut memberikan kewenangan menimbang
kenormalan dan keabnormalan seseorang pada lingkungan sosio-kultural orang
tersebut. Karena itu tingkah laku yang dianggap abnormal pada suatu masyarakat
atau suatu kelompok tertentu, bisa saja dianggap normal jika orang itu pindah
ke kelompok lain. Malik B. Badri (1986) memberi contoh sebuah adat istiadat
Sudan (yang non-Islam) di daerah Gezira, di mana pada upacara-upacara
perkawinan, pengatin pria mencambuki beberapa orang laki-laki, yaitu
teman-temannya, yang dengan sangat suka rela menjadi memar-memar tubuhnya,
seolah dalam <i>trance</i> hipnotik.
Sementara itu, para penonton wanita bersorak-sorai memberi semangat dan
menikmati peristiwa yang dipandang sangat “normal” tersebut. Menyaksikan peristiwa
itu, psikolog Amerika penganut Freudianisme mungkin akan menganggap pengatin
pria atau teman-temannya yang dicambuki itu sebagai pengidap kelainan seksual. Si pengantin pria
akan dicap sebagai seorang sadistik yang mendapatkan kenikmatan erotik dengan
menyakiti orang lain, dan yang dicambuki adalah orang-orang masokhis yang
terpuasi nafsu erotiknya dengan disakiti.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kritik Ideologis<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kritik
ideologis bertujuan menyingkap dan mengungkap segi-segi ideologis, nilai-nilai,
pandangan-pandangan dasar tentang manusia dan semesta yang mendasari atau
menyusup dalam suatu teori atau juga ikut membonceng dalam penerapan suatu
teori.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Anggapan
bahwa ilmu tidak memberikan penilaian (<i>evaluation</i>),
tapi hanya mau mengemukakan fakta apa adanya dengan cara objektif sebagaimana
yang bisa disimpulkan dari suatu kumpulan data dan fakta empiris, telah
disangkal keras oleh Gunnar Myrdal (1969). Dalam semua usaha ilmiah tidak bisa
dihindarkan adanya suatu unsur apriori. Oleh sebab itu, unsur-unsur apriori
yang berupa asumsi-asumsi dasar, faham-faham ideologis yang mendasari suatu
teori hendaknya tidak disembunyikan, melainkan harus dirumuskan dengan jelas
agar dapat secara terbuka didiskusikan. Jelaslah bahwa fakta-fakta tidak mengoganisir
diri menjadi konsep-konsep dan teori-teori hanya karena diamati. Fakta-fakta
dapat diorganisasi menjadi konsep atau teori hanya setelah diolah dengan
menggunakan kerangka konseptual tertentu yang tentunya sudah ada dalam benak
sang teoritisi atau dipilih secara apriori. Bahkan apa yang dinamakan
fakta-fakta ilmiah pun hanya akan tampak jika dilihat dengan kerangka gagasan
atau teori tertentu yang tentunya dipilih secara subjektif, dan tidak tampak
kalau kita memakai kerangka gagasan atau teori yang lain. Bagi orang yang hanya
percaya pada empirisme, misalnya, adalah berarti ia sudah berpihak kepada
empirisme dan tidak pada intuisionalisme. Dus, sudah tidak netral lagi. Maka
bagi seorang empiristik, objektivitas sudah diredusir maknanya menjadi
kepastian empiris belaka (Myrdal,1969).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Jadi,
seorang psikolog yang memandang manusia sebagai seekor binatang materialistik
yang bermotivasi tunggal untuk menyesuaikan diri dengan lingkungan fisik dan
sosialnya “di sini dan saat ini” (<i>here
and now</i>), dengan sendirinya – dalam
hal ini, setidak-tidaknya -- berpandangan
atheis. Manusia dianggap tidak memiliki jiwa, orientasi dan kerinduan terhadap
hal-hal yang tinggi dan metafisis sifatnya. B.F. Skinner yang dengan tegar
tidak mau mengakui adanya apa yang dimaksud dengan kehendak bebas (<i>free will</i>) dalam perilaku manusia, dan
yang memandang manusia bagai mesin belaka (Hjelle & Ziegler, 1981), maka
tentunya di dalam sistem psikologinya berkonsekuensi menonsenskan tanggung
jawab manusia. Kenapa manusia harus bertanggung jawab jika ia tidak lebih dari
mesin yang bertingkah laku semata atas dasar stimulus-respons? Sama pula dalam
psikoanalisa Freud, pertanggungjawaban mustahil diminta karena manusia hanyalah
binatang yang bergerak atas dorongan insting:<i> eros </i>dan <i> thanatos</i>. Memang, psikoanalisa tidak
terlepas dari pandangan Freud bahwa konsep Tuhan tidak lain adalah sebuah
delusi ciptaan manusia. Dan, Freud menyesali kenapa manusia masih menyembah apa
yang dianggapnya sebagai ilusi palsu yang diciptakan karena kebutuhan-kebutuhan
masa kecil. Begitulah, dalam pandangan psikologi tadi, manusia hanyalah sekedar
makhluk psiko-fisikal-sosial belaka, tak ada jiwa atau ruh yang menautkan
manusia dengan Tuhan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">DAFTAR PUSTAKA:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Badri, Malik B., <i>Dilema Psikolog Muslim, </i>(Terjemahan Siti Zaenab Luxfiati),<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Jakarta</st1:city></st1:place>: Penerbit Firdaus, 1986<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Hjelle, Larry A. & Ziegler, Daniel
J., <i>Personality Theories: basic
Assumtions,<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> Research, and Aplications</span></i><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">,
<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Auckland</st1:city></st1:place>:
McGraw-Hill International Book<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> Company, 1981 <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Myrdal, Gunnar, <i>Objectivity in Social Research</i>, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">New York</st1:state></st1:place>: Pantheon Books,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> 1969 <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sahakin, William S. & Sahakin,
Mabel L., <i>Realm of Philosophy</i>, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Cambridge</st1:city></st1:place>:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> Schenkman, 1965<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Suriasumantri, Jujun S., <i>Filsafat
Ilmu</i>, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Jakarta</st1:city></st1:place>:
Penerbit Sinar Harapan, 1984<o:p></o:p></span></div>
andygohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12000416256007837858noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8254694959664536637.post-79397259630589438712015-12-18T17:50:00.000-08:002015-12-18T17:50:00.807-08:00Aliran-aliran Psikologi<b>Sejarah Perkembangan Psikologi</b><br />
1. Psikologi sebagai bagian dari filsafatà obyeknya asal usul<br />
jiwa, ujud jiwa, akhir dan jadinya jiwa, hubungan jasmani<br />
dan rohani. Tokohnya Plato, Aristoteles, Thomas Aquino,<br />
Rene Descartes, John Locke, dll.<br />
2. Psikologi dipengaruhi ilmu alamà psikologi merupakan<br />
ilmu pengetahuan eksak dan banyak tergantung pada<br />
matematika.<br />
3. Psikologi berdiri sendirià gejala jiwa tidak dapat hanya<br />
diterangkan dari sudut ilmu alam, namun dapat dilakukan<br />
melalui eksperimen.<br />
4. Psikologi pada abad 20à para ahli saling berargumentasi<br />
menurut hasil penelitiannya masing-masing yang<br />
berbeda-beda, namun akhirnya saling melengkapià<br />
menimbulkan berbagai aliran psikologi<br />
<br />
<b>Aliran-aliran Psikologi</b><br />
<br />
Strukturalismeà mendasarkan pada isi dan struktur jiwa.<br />
Setiap gejala psikis yang kompleks selalu memiliki<br />
karakteristik dari elemen-elemennya. Elemen kejiwaan<br />
tersebut dikaitkan satu dengan yang lain oleh asosiasi.<br />
Tokoh: William Wundt.<br />
Fungsionalismeà mempelajari fungsi dan kegunaan<br />
jiwa. Metode yang digunakan eksperimen dan observasi<br />
tingkah laku, ingin mengetahui mengapa dan untuk apa<br />
suatu tingkah laku terjadi. Jiwa seseorang diperlukan<br />
untuk melangsungkan kehidupan dan berfungsi untuk<br />
penyesuaian diri. Tokoh: William James.<br />
<br />
<br />
3. Psikologi Dalamàuntuk mengetahui gejala jiwa<br />
dibutuhkan analisis sampai kepada<br />
ketidaksadarannya yang tertutup oleh alam<br />
kesadarannya. Beberapa alirannya:<br />
– Psikoanalisis (Sigmund Freud)<br />
– Psikologi Individual (Alfred Adler)<br />
– Psikologi Analisis (Carl Gustav Jung)<br />
4. Behaviorismeà mempelajari tingkah laku nyata,<br />
terbuka dan dapat diukur secara obyektif, tidak<br />
perlu menggunakan metode introspeksi. Tokoh:<br />
J.B. Watson.<br />
<br />
5. Psikologi Hormicà Setiap tingkah laku dilandasi<br />
oleh dorongan dasar (hormo urge) yang<br />
menyebabkan tingkah laku tersebut mempunyai<br />
tujuan, arah. Dorongan dasar tingkah laku adalah<br />
naluri (insting). Reflek bukan tingkah laku karena<br />
tidak bertujuan. Tokoh Mc Dougall.<br />
<br />
6. Psikologi Gestaltà muncul sebagai reaksi psikologi<br />
elemen. Gestalt = totalitas, keseluruhanà tidak<br />
sekedar unsur-unsur atau bagian dari totalitas yang<br />
secara sendiri-sendiri tidak memiliki arti apa-apa.<br />
Tokoh: Von Ehrenfels, Wertheimer.<br />
7. Psikologi Kerokhanianà metodenya verstehen,<br />
yakni mengerti dan memahami. Gejala kejiwaan<br />
baru dapat dipahami dan berarti bila gejala jiwa<br />
tersebut merupakan faktor dari totalitas nilai.<br />
Verstehen harus ikut mengalami, bersimpati<br />
kepada, memihak kepada, atau mengidentifikasi<br />
diri dengan seseorang atau sesuatu, namun<br />
menurut sikap “berdiri di atasnya”. Tokohnya<br />
Wilhelm Dilthey.<br />
Psikologi kerokhanian berkembang sehingga<br />
timbul:<br />
• psikologi nilai dari Spranger<br />
• psikologi personalisme dari William Stern.<br />
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andygohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12000416256007837858noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8254694959664536637.post-34290199543685863352014-12-18T11:21:00.000-08:002015-12-18T11:25:37.577-08:00PENGENALAN PSIKOLOGI KOGNITIF<div class="Section1">
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">Psikologi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">kognitif</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">merupakan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">perspektif</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">secara</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">teori</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">memfokuskan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pada</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dunia</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">persepsi</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pemikiran</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ingatan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">manusia.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Ia</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">menggambarkan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pelajar</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">sebagai</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">proses</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">maklumat</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">aktif</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">menyerupai</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">metafora</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dunia</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">komputer.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Pada</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pandangan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">psikologi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kognitif,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">cara</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pelajar</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">menambahkan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">maklumat</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.25pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">menentukan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pencapaian</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">tahap</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">kefahaman</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.25pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">mereka.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Sebilangan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">konsep</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">berkuasa</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">telah</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">muncul</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dalam</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">psikologi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">kognitif</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dengan</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">setiapnya</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">menjelaskan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pertimbangan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kuasa</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pendidikan.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">Antara</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">konsep-konsep</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ini</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">termasuk</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">skemata</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">iaitu</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">idea</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">menggambarkan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">rangka</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.95pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kerja</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mental</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">untuk</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pemahaman,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pembentukan</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">ingatan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">iaitu</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pandangan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">menyatakan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pengetahuan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">adalah</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">direka</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">oleh</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pelajar</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">apabila</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mereka</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">menghadapi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.25pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">situasi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.25pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">baru</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.25pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.25pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">tahap</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.25pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">memproses</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.25pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">iaitu</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.25pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">tanggapan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.25pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">bahawa</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.25pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">ingatan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.25pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">adalah</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.25pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">keluaran</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">sampingan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dari</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">proses</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">maklumat</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">diterima.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Disebabkan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">psikologi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kognitif</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">semakin</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">berkembang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dalam</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">bentuk</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">lebih</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">matang,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ia</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mula</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">memasukkan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pengaruh</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">sosial</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dalam</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">perkembangan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kognitif,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">perhubungan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">antara</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">kognisi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">motivasi,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">kesedaran</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">diri,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">strategi</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kognitif</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">perkembangan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kepakaran</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">subjek</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.15pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dalam</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.15pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">bidang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.25pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">matematik</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.25pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.25pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">sains.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">SEJARAH</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">RINGKAS</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">ERA</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">PERKAITAN</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Setiap</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">orang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mempunyai</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pandangan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">tersendiri</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">terhadap</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dunia</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">ini.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">“Hipotesis</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dunia”</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">(Pepper,</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">1942/1961)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.4pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">memandu</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.4pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pemerhatian,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.4pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">tindakan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.4pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.4pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kefahaman</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.4pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">tentang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.4pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pengalaman</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.4pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kita</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.4pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">sebarang</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">perspektif</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">teori</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dalam</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">psikologi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">sama</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">meletakkan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pada</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pandangan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dunia</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">tertentu.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Psikologi</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kognitif</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">merupa</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">salah</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">satu</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">perspektif</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">teori,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ia</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">menentukan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">bahawa</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">tujuan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">psikologi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">saintifik</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">adalah</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">untuk</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">memerhatikan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">tingkah</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">laku-tindak</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">balas</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.65pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">individu</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.65pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.65pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">boleh</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.65pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">menjelaskan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.65pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">tindakan</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kita</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">lihat.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Dalam</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">psikologi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kognitif,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pemerhatian</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">digunakan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">untuk</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">menghasilkan</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">kesimpulan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">tentang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">faktor-faktor</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pemikiran,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">bahasa,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">maksud</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">imejan.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Bidang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">psikologi</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kognitif</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">cuba</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">membina</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">penjelasan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">formal</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">bersistematik</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">tentang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">keaslian</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">fungsi</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">proses</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mental</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kita.</span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="2"></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Dari</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">tahun</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">1920-1970,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dunia</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">psikologi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">di</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dominan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">oleh</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">teori</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">perkaitan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">atau</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">asosiasi.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">Matlamat</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">umum</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">paradigma</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">rangsangan-</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">tindak</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">balas</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">psikologi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ini</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">berasal</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dari</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">peraturan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">asas</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">tingkah</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">laku</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pembelajaran</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">perlanjutan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mereka</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kepada</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">persekitaran</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">lebih</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">kompleks.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Binatang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.9pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">merupakan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.9pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">objek</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.9pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.9pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">sesuai</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.9pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">untuk</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.9pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dikaji</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.85pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dengan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.85pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">mempercayai</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.85pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">bahawa</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.85pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pembelajaran</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.5pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ingatan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.5pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">organisma</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.5pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">rendah</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.5pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ini</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.5pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">memberikan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.5pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">peraturan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.5pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pembelajaran</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.5pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.5pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">universal</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.5pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.5pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">kajian</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">binatang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">di</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">makmal</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">boleh</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">membuat</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">penjelasan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">berkenaan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">manusia.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">Clark</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">Hull</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">(1934,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">1952)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">rakannya</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">membuat</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">formulasi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">jelas</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">tentang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">prinsip</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">perkaitan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pembelajaran.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Dengan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">melakukan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">beberapa</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.4pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">eksperimen</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.4pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ke</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.4pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">atas</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.4pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">binatang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.4pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kajian,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.4pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Hull</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">rakannya</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">memperoleh</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">persamaan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">berdasarkan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.55pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pemboleh</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.55pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">ubah</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.55pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">berhipotesis</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">seperti</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.55pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">kekuatan</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">tabiat,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.1pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dorongan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.1pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.1pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">ke</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.1pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">sekatan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.1pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.1pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">membolehkan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.1pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">ramalan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.1pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dibuat</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.1pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">tentang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.1pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">persamaan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.1pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">di</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.1pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mana</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mereka</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">boleh</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">menjelaskan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kebanyakan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">fenomena</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pembelajaran</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">cuba-jaya</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pembelajaran</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">diskriminasi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ringkas</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dalam</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">binatang.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Kegunaan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">rangka</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kerja</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">teori</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">perkaitan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">terhad</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pada</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">minat</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ahli</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">psikologi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">terhadap</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">fenomena</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pembelajaran</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">binatang.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Di</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">Amerika,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">paradigma</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">perkaitan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ini</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">juga</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dominan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dalam</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kajian</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ingatan,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pemikiran</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">penyelesaian</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">masalah.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Pada</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">tempoh</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ini,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">fokus</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kajian</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kebanyakan</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">penyelidikan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ingatan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">adalah</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">berkenaan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">penghafalan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">atau</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pembelajaran</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">tidak</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">bermakna.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Hanya</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">selepas</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">Herman</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Ebbinghaus,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">penyelidik</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mengkaji</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">ingatan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">untuk</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">butiran</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">individu,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">biasanya</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">suku</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kata</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">tidak</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">bererti</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">perkataan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">individu.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">Andaian</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">berdasarkan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">penyelidikan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">ini</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">adalah</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pemahaman</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">bentuk</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mudah</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pembelajaran</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ingatan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">akan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">membawa</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kepada</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pemahaman</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">fenomena</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pembelajaran</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">ingatan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">kompleks.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Cara</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.35pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kajian</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.35pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.35pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">diminati</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.35pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">adalah</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.35pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pembelajaran</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">siri</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.35pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">senarai</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.35pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">iaitu</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.35pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">satu</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.35pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">item</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.35pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">memberi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.35pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">tanda</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kepada</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">item</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">berikutnya</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dalam</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">senarai</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">tersebut</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pembelajaran</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kait</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pasang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ialah</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">di</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mana</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">tindak</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">balas</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">berkaitan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dengan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">rangsangan.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Kedua-dua</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">cara</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ini</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">memberikan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">perkembangan</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">perkaitan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.25pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">lebih</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.25pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">jelas</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.25pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">diramal</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.25pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.25pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dikaji.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.25pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">Selagi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.25pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">kajian</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.25pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">ini</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.25pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dilanjutkan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.3pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">jadual</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.3pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">norma</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.3pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dikembangkan</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">di</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mana</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">suka</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">kata</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">atau</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">perkataan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">yang</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">tidak</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">bermakna</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">itu</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ditentukan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">menjadi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">bermakna.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">Mengetahui</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">ciri-ciri</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">perkataan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">suku</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">kata</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">membenarkan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">penyelidik</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">untuk</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">memanipulasi</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kekuatan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">perkaitan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">bahan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dengan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">tepat.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">Matlamat</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kajian</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ini</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">adalah</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">untuk</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">membina</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">set</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">prinsip</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.45pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">asas</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.45pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">berasal</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.45pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dari</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.45pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kajian</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.45pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">bentuk</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.45pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pembelajaran</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.45pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.45pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">tulen</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.45pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.45pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">akan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.45pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">digunakan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.45pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pada</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.45pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">konteks</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">lebih</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">luas.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Kekangan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.95pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">asas</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.95pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">di</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.95pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mana</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.95pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ahli</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.95pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">psikologi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">melakukan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.95pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">eksperimen</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.95pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">mengurangkan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.95pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">perbezaan</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dalam</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">lingkungan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">penyelidikan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">atas</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pembelajaran</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">cuba-jaya</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">haiwan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">kajian</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">ingatan</span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="3"></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">penghafalan,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pendapatan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mereka</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">semakin</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kurang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">berhubung</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dengan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pendidikan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">terhad</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pada</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">aspek</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">fungsi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">manusia.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Kajian</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ini</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dikatakan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">lebih</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">cenderung</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mengkaji</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">peraturan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pembelajaran</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">haiwan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">daripada</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">prinsip</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">universalnya</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dicarikan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">oleh</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">teori</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.25pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">perkaitan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.15pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ini.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Tidak</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">semua</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ahli</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">psikologi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mengalami</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dilema</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ini,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">B.F.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Skinner</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">telah</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">membuat</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">impak</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">besar</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pada</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">psikologi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pendidikan.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">Pandangan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Skinner</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">melihat</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pelajar</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">adalah</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">untuk</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mempelajari</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">“tabula</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">rasa”,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pelaziman</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">disebabkan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">oleh</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">persekitarannya.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">Skinner</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">berpendapat</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">matlamat</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.9pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">psikologi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.9pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">adalah</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.9pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">meramal</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.9pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.9pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">menguasai</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.85pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">tingkah</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.85pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">laku.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.85pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">Organisma</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.9pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">melakukan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.9pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">sesuatu</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">atas</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">fungsi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">persekitaran</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">di</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mana</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">mereka</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ditempatkan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">juga</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">sejarah</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pembelajaran</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mereka.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Dengan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.95pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">menguasai</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.95pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">sebelum</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.85pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.95pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">akibat</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.95pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">tingkah</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.95pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">laku</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.95pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ini,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.95pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">ramalan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.95pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.95pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">penguasaan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.95pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dapat</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.95pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dicapai.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">Dengan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">membekalkan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">akibat</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">positif</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">tingkah</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">laku</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">menguasai</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">jadual</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">di</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mana</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">akibat</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">itu</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dihasilkan,</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">tingkah</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">laku</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">boleh</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dikuasai</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">ditajamkan.</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Dalam</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">kajiannya,</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Skinner</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">mendemonstrasikan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">haiwan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ujian</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">memang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">sangat</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">sensitif</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">untuk</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">manipulasi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">tindakan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">sebelum</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">akibatnya.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Misalnya</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dengan</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">tekankan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">bar,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">adalah</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dijangka</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">akan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">diberi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">makanan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">atau</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">minuman</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">selepas</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">tindakan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">itu.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">Pada</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pertengahan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">60an,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">teori</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">behaviourisme</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dipimpin</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">oleh</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pandangan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Skinner</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">menjadi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kuasa</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kuat</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dalam</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dunia</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">psikologi.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">Salah</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">satu</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">sebab</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pengaruh</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">kuat</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">behaviourisme</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">ini</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">adalah</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kerana</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Skinner</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pelajarnya</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">menyedari</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">kegunaan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">berpotensi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">prinsip</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">behaviourisme</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dalam</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pembelajaran</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">manusia</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">telah</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">berjaya</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">menggunakannya</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dalam</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pelbagai</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">situasi.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Penggunaan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.35pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mula</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.35pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">di</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.35pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">kediaman</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.35pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kemudahan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.35pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">rawatan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.3pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">untuk</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.3pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pesakit</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.3pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mental</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.3pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">kerencatan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.35pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mental,</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">spesifikasi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">cermat</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pada</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">matlamat</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">behaviourisme</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">persekitaran</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">distandardkan</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">menunjukkan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ia</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">berguna</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dalam</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.65pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">rawatan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kebanyakan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">masalah.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Seterusnya</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">perkembangan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">prinsip</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">behaviourisme</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.25pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ini</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dalam</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">bidang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pendidikan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">kerjasama</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pengurusan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kelas</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mesin</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mengajar.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">Pada</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.05pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">awal</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.05pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">70an,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.05pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">penggunaan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.05pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">prinsip</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.05pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">behaviourisme</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.05pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ini</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.05pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">banyak</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.05pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dipraktikkan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.05pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dalam</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.95pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ilmu</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">terapi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">persekitaran</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pendidikan.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Sehingga</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kini,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dalam</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pendidikan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pengaruh</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">behaviourisme</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">masih</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">diteruskan.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Perkembangan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pembelajaran</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">falsafah</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">behaviourisme</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mengekhaskan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">tindak</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">balas</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dituruti</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">bersesuaian,terang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">berganjaran.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">Kebanyakan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">ini</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">berasal</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dari</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">psikologi</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">behaviourisme</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">telah</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">menjadi</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pendidikan</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">lebih</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">berkesan,</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">bertanggungjawab</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">berperikemanusiaan.</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">Dalam</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">persekitaran</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pendidikan</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">khas,</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">prinsip</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">behaviourisme</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ini</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">memperuntukkan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">satu</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">set</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">teknologi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.15pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">berkesan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">untuk</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pengajaran.</span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="4"></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Walau</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.5pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">bagaimanapun,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.5pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">komuniti</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.5pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">psikologi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.5pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">tidak</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.5pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">berpuas</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.5pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">hati</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.5pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dengan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.5pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">keupayaan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.5pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">psikologi</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">rangsangan-</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">tindak</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">balas</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">memberikan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">keterangan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">cukup</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dalam</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pemikiran</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ingatan</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">manusia.</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Misalnya</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">tumpuan</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">perhatian</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">behaviourisme</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dengan</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">aktiviti</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pemerhatian</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dipertimbangkan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">terlalu</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">terhad,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ada</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mengutuk</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">perlakuan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">manusia</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dikuasai</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">oleh</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">alam</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">sekitarnya.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Sebilangan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kecil</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">bimbang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">prinsip</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">behaviourisme</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ini</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">disalahgunakan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kecewa</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">kemungkinan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">teknologi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">tinggi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">digunakan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">untuk</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">tujuan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">totalitarian.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Pada</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">masa</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">sama,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">ramai</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ahli</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">psikologi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.55pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">berminat</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.55pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dalam</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.55pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">proses</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.55pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">mental</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.55pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kelihatan</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">melibatkan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">diri</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dalam</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.65pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kajian</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">sia-sia</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">di</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mana</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.8pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mereka</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.8pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">cuba</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.8pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">menggunakan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">rangka</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kerja</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">teori</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">perkaitan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">konsep</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">behaviourisme</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">untuk</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">menggambarkan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">kerumitan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pemikiran</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">manusia,</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ingatan,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">penyelesaian</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">masalah,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">membuat</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">keputusan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.5pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kreativiti.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Untuk</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">menjelaskan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">kumpulan</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">besar</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">ini</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dalam</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">proses</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mental</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">sebagai</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">perhubungan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">siri</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">rangsangan-</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">tindak</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">balas</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dilihat</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">sama</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ada</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.9pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">memuaskan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.9pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">atau</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">menyumbangkan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.9pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pemahaman</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.9pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kognisi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.9pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">manusia.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.9pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Maka</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.9pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">perkaitan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.9pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dikatakan</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mencapai</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">hadnya</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">gagal</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">sebagai</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">psikologi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.15pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">saintifik</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.25pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">generalisasi.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">Pertambahan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">persepsi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pada</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kesempitan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pelaziman</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">perkaitan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">apabila</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">terdapat</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ahli</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">psikologi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ingin</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">menerangkan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">perkembangan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">bahasa</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dari</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">perspektif</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">behaviourisme.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Terbitan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Skinner</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">“Verbal</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Behavior”</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pada</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">1957</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mendapat</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">tentangan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">hebat</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dari</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ahli</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">linguistik</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mengadakan</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">perbahasan</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">tentang</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">kemampuan</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">penjelasan</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">behaviourisme</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">tentang</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">perkembangan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.9pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">bahasa.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.9pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">Pada</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.9pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pandangan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.9pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Skinner,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.9pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">bahasa</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">kebanyakan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.9pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">melalui</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.95pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">proses</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.95pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">peniruan,</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pembentukan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.8pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.8pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">peneguhan.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.8pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Kenyataan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.8pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ini</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.8pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">ditentang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.8pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">oleh</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.8pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ahli</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.8pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">linguistik</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.8pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dengan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.8pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">mengeluarkan</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">bukti</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">teoritikal</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kuat</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">hujah</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">empirikal.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">Perkembangan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pesat</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dalam</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">teori</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">linguistik</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">penyelidik</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">menunjukkan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">perbezaan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kualitatif</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dalam</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pertuturan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kanak-kanak</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">orang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dewasa</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kurang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">jangkaan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">teori</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pada</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">tahap</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">peniruan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">telah</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">melemahkan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">behaviourisme</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">sebagai</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">teori</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dapat</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.25pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">digunakan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.25pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">umum</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.25pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">untuk</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.25pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">perkembangan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.25pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">bahasa.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ERA</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">KOGNITIF</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Pada</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">masa</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">tepatnya,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">bermula</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">revolusi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kognitif</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">di</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mana</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ahli</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">psikologi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">menjadi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">semakin</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kecewa</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.95pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">tentang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.95pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">batasan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.95pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">teori</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.95pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.95pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">cara</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.95pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">behaviourisme.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.95pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Seperti</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.95pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.95pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dibincangkan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.95pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dahulu,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.95pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kajian</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ahli</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">linguistik</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dalam</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">semula</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">jadi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">perkembangan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">bahasa</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">memberikan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">bukti</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pertentangan</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">perspektif</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">persekitaran</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dikemukakan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">oleh</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ahli</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">behaviourisme.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Faktor</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">lain</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">penting</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ialah</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">kemunculan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">komputer</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">di</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mana</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">memberikan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kebolehpercayaan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">metafora</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">manusia</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">memproses</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">maklumat</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">alat</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">penting</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">sebagai</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.05pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">model</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">penjelajahan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">proses</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kognitif</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">manusia.</span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="5"></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">Banyak</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">kerja</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dilakukan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">oleh</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">individu</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">jelas</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">sebagai</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pangsi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dalam</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mewujudkan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">revolusi</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kognitif.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Dalam</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">keluaran</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Ulrich</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Neisser</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">“</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Cognitive</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Psychologi”</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pada</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">tahun</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">1967</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">telah</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">memberikan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">definisi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">awal</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">kepada</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">bidang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">baru</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">psikologi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">kognitif.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">Jerome</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Bruner</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">atau</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">David</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Ausubel</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">menekankan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">struktur</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mental</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">organisasi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">rangka</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kerja.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">JJ</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Jenkins</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">(1974)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">menyebut</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dalam</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">artikel</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">psikologi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">Amerika</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">bahawa</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">perbezaan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">asas</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">antara</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">bilangan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">besar</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kajian</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pembelajaran</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.15pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">penghafalan,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.15pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">di</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.15pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mana</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.15pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dia</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.15pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.15pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">rakannya</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.1pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">telah</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.1pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">merancang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.1pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">generasi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.1pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dengan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.1pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">tugasan</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mereka</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.65pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dalam</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.65pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">paradigma</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.65pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kognitif.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.65pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Marvin</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.65pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">Minsky</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.65pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">(1975)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.65pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">di</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.65pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mana</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.65pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">menggariskan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.65pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">keperluan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.65pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ciri-</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ciri</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">sistem</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">visi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dapat</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mengenali</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">objek</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mudah.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">Kertas</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">kajiannya</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">menekankan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">peranan</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kritikal</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">struktur</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mental</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dalam</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pemikiran</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">manusia,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">membuat</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">keputusan,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">tema</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ditiru</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">oleh</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">orang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">lain</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dalam</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.1pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">konsep</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">berkaitan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">tentang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">skrip</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">skemata.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Pada</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">masa</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kini,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">psikologi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kognitif</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">adalah</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">aliran</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">utama</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">psikologi.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Dalam</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pendidikan,</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">aplikasinya</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">adalah</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dijelajahi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">sepenuhnya.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">TEMA</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">KOGNITIF</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">UNTUK</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">PENDIDIKAN</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">1</span></b> <b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Psikologi</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.25pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kognitif</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.25pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">membantu</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.25pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kita</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.25pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">melihat</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.25pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pembelajaran</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.25pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">sebagai</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.25pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">proses</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.25pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pembinaan</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dan</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">bukan</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">proses</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">terbuka</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">1.</span></b> <b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Psikologi</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kognitif</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">menekankan</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kepentingan</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">menstrukturkan</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pengetahuan.</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">2.</span></b> <b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Psikologi</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.15pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kognitif</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.15pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mementingkan</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">kognisi</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">kesedaran</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">diri</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dan</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pengawalan</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">diri</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">3.</span> <b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Psikologi</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kognitif</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">menekankan</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">peranan</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">interaksi</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">sosial</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dalam</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">perkembangan</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kognitif.</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">4.</span></b> <b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Psikologi</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kognitif</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">menekankan</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">kontekstual</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">semula</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">jadi</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pengetahuan,</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">strategi</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dan</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kemahiran.</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">.</span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="6"></a><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">RINGKASAN</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Dalam</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.15pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">abad</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.15pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ini,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.15pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ahli</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.15pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">psikologi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.15pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">cuba</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.15pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mendapatkan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">peraturan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">asas</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">menguasai</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pembelajaran</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">ingatan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dengan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">kajian</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">beberapa</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">fenomena</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dalam</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">persekitaran</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">eksperimen</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dikawal.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">Semakin</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kajian</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">difokuskan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">terdapat</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pengurangan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">perhubungannya.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Walau</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">bagaimanapun,</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">cabangan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dari</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">psikologi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">rangsangan-tindak</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">balas</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">menegaskan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">objektif</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pemerhatian</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">terhadap</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.55pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">corak</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.55pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">tindak</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.55pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">balas</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.55pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.55pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">persekitaran</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.55pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">memberi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">impak</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">amat</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">mempengaruhi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">terhadap</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pendidikan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">sehingga</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">kini.</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">Behaviourisme</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">radikal</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mengelakkan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">“</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kehidupan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">minda”</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">memfokuskan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.35pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pada</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.35pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pemerhatian</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.35pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">objektif</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.35pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">terhadap</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.35pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">tindak</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.35pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">balas</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.35pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.35pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kesan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.35pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">persekitarannya</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.35pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pada</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mereka.</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">Bagaimanapun,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">psikologi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">telah</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">berkembang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">tidak</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">puas</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">hati</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dengan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">teori</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">rangsangan-tindak</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.05pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">balas</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.05pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">ini</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.05pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.05pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pertimbangan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.05pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.05pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kurang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.05pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dalam</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.95pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pemahaman</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.05pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">peristiwa</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.05pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mental</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.3pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">kompleks.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.3pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Penyelidik</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.3pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">ingatan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mengalami</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.3pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kekecewaan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">apabila</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.3pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mereka</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.3pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">cuba</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.3pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">menggunakan</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">teori</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">perkaitan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kajian</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">eksperimen</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pembelajaran</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">penghafalan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">untuk</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">menjelaskan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">ingatan</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">manusia.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Perspektif</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">behaviourisme</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">juga</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ditentang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">oleh</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ahli</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">linguistik</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">menyoal</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.6pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">penggunaan</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dalam</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">perkembangan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">bahasa</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">juga</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">orang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">lain</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">mengkritik</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">idea</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">penguasaan</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">behaviourisme</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.25pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.25pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">membimbangkan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.25pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pengurusan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">behaviourisme</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">teknologi.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Kini</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.15pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">psikologi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.15pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">Amerika</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.15pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">menumpukan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.15pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pada</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kognitif.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">Psikologi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kognitif</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">menggambarkan</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">manusia</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">sebagai</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pemproses</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">maklumat,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pembentukan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kontekstual</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">bersama-sama</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mekanik,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ahli</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">falsafah,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">psikologi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">kognitif</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">juga</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">menekankan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">kepentingan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">aktiviti</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pelajar</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">struktur</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">mental</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dalam</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">pemahaman</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">menghasilkan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">makna</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">semakin</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">matang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">psikologi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kognitif,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ia</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">bertambah</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dalam</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">memfokuskan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.3pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">bagaimana</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.3pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">perkembangan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.3pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kognisi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dalam</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.3pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">konteks</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.3pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">sosial</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.3pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.3pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">interaksi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.3pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">antara</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kepercayaan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">kognisi.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Psikologi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">kognitif</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">bermula</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">memberikan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">impak</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">penting</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dalam</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pendidikan.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">Matlamat</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">di</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">sini</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.35pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ialah</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.35pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">untuk</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.35pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">menghasilkan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.35pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">konsep,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.35pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">prinsip</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.35pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.35pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">perspektif</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.35pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">psikologi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.35pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">kognitif</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.35pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">semasa</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.35pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dengan</span></div>
<br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">terperinci</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.25pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">dan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.25pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">membantu</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.25pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">menjelajahi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.25pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">implikasinya</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">untuk</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">praktik</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">pendidikan.</span></div>
andygohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12000416256007837858noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8254694959664536637.post-27579834048047005332014-12-02T11:23:00.000-08:002015-12-18T11:25:57.950-08:00KARAKTERISTIK BIOGRAFIS<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;">KARAKTERISTIK
BIOGRAFIS<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.35pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">K</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">arakteristik
biografis</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">yaitu karakteristik pribadi seperti umur, jenis
kelamin, dan status kawin yang objektif dan mudah diperoleh dari rekaman
pribadi.</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> S</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">etiap individu</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">tentu saja
memiliki karakteristik individu yang menentukan terhadap perilaku individu.
Yang pada akhirnya menghasilkan sebuah motivasi individu.</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">a.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Usia </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.35pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;">Usia sangat berengaruh terhadap karakteristik biografis
individu. Perbedaan usia akan membedakan seberapa besar produktivitas individu
tersebut dalam melakukan aktivitas. Semakin tua usia individu maka produktivitas
individu tersebut akan semakin menurun. Usia banyak mempengaruhi dalam individu
seperti terhadap produktivitas, kepuasan kerja, pengunduran diri, dan tingkat
keabsenan.<s><o:p></o:p></s></span></div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;">Usia Terhadap Produktivitas : sebagian berasumsi
bahwa semakin bertambahnya usia maka produktivitas akan menurun, namun
tidak kajian lain menyatakan bahwa antara usia dan kinerja tidak ada hubungan, sebab usia
yang bertambah biasanya akan dapat ditutupi dengan pengalaman yang cukup
lama.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Usia
Terhadap Kepuasan Kerja : terdapat bermacam hasil penelitian, sebagian
penelitian menunjukkan hubungan positif antara bertambahnya usia dengan
kepuasan kerja sampai pada umur 60 tahun, namun sebagian penelitian
mencoba memisahkan antara karyawan professional dengan non-profesional,
bahwa karyawan yang profesional kepuasannya akan terus menerus meningkat
seiring bertambahnya usia, dan karyawan yang non profesional merosot
selama usia setengah baya dan kemudian naik lagi pada tahun-tahun
berikutnya. <o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Usia
Terhadap Tingkat Pengunduran diri</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;"> : </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Semakin Tua maka tingkat pengunduran diri
semakin rendah<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Usia
Terhadap Tingkat Keabsenan : Semakin Tua maka tingkat keabsenan akan
semakin rendah, namun tidak selalu demikian, karyawan tua mempunyai
tingkat keabsenan dapat dihindari lebih rendah dibanding yang muda, namun
karyawan tua mempunya tingkat kemangkiran tak terhindarkan lebih tinggi.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">b.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;">Jenis
Kelamin<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.35pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;">Tidak ada perbedaan yang mencolok antara pria dan wanita,
kecuali jika dikaitkan dengan budaya setempat berkaitan dengan keabsenan, bahwa
wanita lebih memiliki tingkat kebasenan yang tinggi dibandingkan dengan pria, hal
ini berkaitan dengan tanggung jawab dan fungsi dari seorang wanita.</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Wanita memikul tanggung jawab rumah tangga dan keluarga yang lebih besar,
juga masalah kewanitaan.</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;">T</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">idak ada beda yang signifikan / bermakna dalam produktifitas kerja antara
pria dengan wanita. T</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">idak ada bukti yang menyatakan bahwa jenis kelamin
karyawan memperngaruhi kepuasan kerja.</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Beberapa studi
menjumpai bahwa wanita mempunyai tingkat keluar yang lebih tinggi, dan studi
lain menjumpai tidak ada perbedaan antara hubungan keduanya.wanita mempunyai
tingkat absensi yang lebih tinggi (lebih sering mangkir). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">c.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;">Status
Perkawinan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.35pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;">Tidak terdapat hubungan antara status perkawinan dengan
produktivitas, namun hasil riset menunjukkan bahwa karyawan yang telah menikah
mempunyai tingkat pengunduruan diri yang rendah, tingkat keabsenan yang rendah
dan lebih puas dengan pekerjaannya dibanding rekan sejawat yang belum menikah,
hal ini dapat dikaitkan dengan status
perkawinan yang menuntut suatu tanggung jawab lebih besar. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">d.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;">Masa
Kerja<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.35pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Tidak ada alasan bahwa karyawan yang lebih lama bekerja (senior) akan lebih
produktif dari pada yang junior. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">S</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">enioritas / masa kerja berkaitan secara negatif dengan kemangkiran dan
dengan tingkat turnover.</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;">Masa kerja dengan produktivitas menunjukkan hubungan
yang positif<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;">Masa kerja dengan keabsenan menunjukkan hubungan
yang negativ</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">e<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Masa
kerja dengan tingkat pengunduran diri menunjukkan bahwa karyawan senior
semakin kecil kemungkinan untuk mengundurkan diri<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Masa
kerja dan kepuasan kerja saling berkaitan positif<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">KEMAMPUAN</span></b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.35pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kemampuan
diartikan sebagai kapasitas individu untuk melaksanakan berbagai tugas dalam
pekerjaan tertentu.</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kemampuan
seseorang tersusun dari dua factor :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;">K</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">emampuan
intelektual : Kapasitas untuk melaksanakan kegiatan-kegiatan mental</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;">. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">M</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">isalnya : berpikir, menganalisis,
memahami yang mana dapat diukur dalam bentuk tes (tes IQ). Dan setiap orang
punya kemampuan yang berbeda.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Dalam dasawarsa
terakhir terdapat hasil penelitian mengenai intelegensia yang dapat melebihi
kemampuan mental. Dimana intelegensia dapat dipahami secara lebih baik dengan
menguraikannya menjadi empat sub-bagian</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;"> :</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kognitif</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> : </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">bakat yg ditemukan oleh tes IQ</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Sosial</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> : </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">kemampuan berhubungan dgn orang lain secara</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;"> efektif<span style="color: #cd9b00;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Emosi</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> : </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">kemampuan u/ mengidentifikasi, memahami dan
mengelola emosi</span><span lang="IN" style="color: #cd9b00; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Budaya</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> : </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">kesadaran akan keberagaman budaya &
kemampuan u/ menjalankan fungsi lintas budaya tsb</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ol start="2" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">kemampuan fisik : Kemampuan menjalankan tugas
yang menuntut stamina, keterampilan, kekuatan, dan
karakteristik-karakteristik serupa.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">K</span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">EPRIBADIAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.35pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">M</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">erupakan
cara individu bereaksi dan berinteraksi dengan orang lain. kepribadian
terbentuk dari faktor keturunan, juga lingkungan (budaya, norma keluarga dan
pengaruh lainnya), dan juga situasi.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> </span><b><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">ciri dari
kepribadian</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">merupakan karakteristik yang
bertahan, yang membedakan perilaku seorang individu, seperti sifat malu, agresif,
mengalah, malas, ambisius,setia.<br />
<!--[if !supportLineBreakNewLine]--><br />
<!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.35pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.35pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">PROSES PENBELAJARAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.35pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Proses pembelajaran adalah bagaimana
kita dapat menjelaskan dan meramalkan perilaku, dan pahami bagaimana orang
belajar.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> <span lang="IN">B</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">elajar adalah<b><i> </i></b></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">setiap
perubahan yang relatif permanen dari perilaku yang terjadi sebagai hasil
pengalaman.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">belajar melibatkan perubahan (baik ataupun buruk)<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">perubahan harus relatif permanen<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">belajar berlangsung jika ada perubahan tindakan /
perilaku<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">beberapa bentuk pengalaman diperlukan untuk
belajar. pengalaman dapat diperoleh lewat pengamatan langsung atau tidak
langsung (membaca) atau lewat praktek.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
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<em><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; font-style: normal; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">Ada beberapa
teori pembelajaran :</span></em><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l11 level2 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">1.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: -.85pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Pengondisisan Klasik </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 56.7pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 42.55pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Pengondisian
klasik dikemukakan berdasarkan eksperimen oleh seorang ahli fisiolog Rusia
bernama IvanPavlov. Pengondisian klasik merupakan jenis pengondisian dimana
individu merespons beberapa stimulus yang tidak biasa dan menghasilkan respons
baru. Dikenal beberapa istilah dalam pengondisian klasik yaitu : <span style="letter-spacing: -.85pt;">rangsangan tidak berkondisi,rangsangan
berkondisi, dan respons tidak berkondisi, </span>dan respons berkondisi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 56.7pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 42.55pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Pengondisian
klasik adalah pasif. Sesuatu terjadi dan kita bereaksi dalam cara tertentu.
Reaksi tersebut diperoleh sebagai respons terhadap kejadian tertentu yang dapat
dikenali.Dengan demikian hal ini dapat menjelaskan perilaku refleksi sederhana.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l11 level2 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN">2.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN">Pengkondisian operan </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 56.7pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Pengkondisian operan merupakan jenis
pengkondisian dimana perilaku sukarela yang diharapkan
menghasilkan penghargaan atau mencegah sebuah hukuman. Perilaku operant
berkebalikan dengan perilaku refleksi. Kecenderungan untuk mengulang perilaku
seperti ini dipengaruhi oleh ada atau tidaknya penegasan dari
konsekuensi-konsekuensi yang dihasilkan perilaku. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 56.7pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Konsep ini dikemukakan oleh psikolog
Harvard, B. F. Skinner. Pengondisian operant merupakan bagian dari konsep
Skinner mengenai <span style="letter-spacing: -.85pt;">paha</span>m <span style="letter-spacing: -.85pt;">perilaku, </span>yang menyatakan bahwa perilaku
mengikuti rangsangan dalam cara yang relatif tidak terpikirkan. Jika sebuah
perilaku gagal untuk ditegaskan secara positif, probabilitas bahwa perilaku <span style="letter-spacing: -.85pt;">tersebut akan terulang pun menurun. </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l11 level2 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN">3.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN">Pembelajaran sosial </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 56.7pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Pembelajaran sosial merupakan pandangan bahwa orang-orang dapat belajar
melalui pengamatan dan pengalaman langsung. Teori ini berasumsi bahwa perilaku
adalah sebuah fungsi dari konsekuensi, dan mengakui
keberadaan pembelajaran melalui pengamatan dan pentingnya persepsi dalam
pembelajaran. Individu merespons pada bagaimana mereka merasakan dan
mendefinisikan konsekuensi, bukan pada konsekuensi objektif itu
sendiri.Pengaruh model-model adalah sentral pada sudut pandang pembelajaran
sosial. Empat proses untuk menentukan<span style="letter-spacing: -.85pt;"> pengaruh
sebuah model pada seorang individual </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l11 level3 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">a.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Proses Perhatian.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 92.15pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.35pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Individu belajar dari sebuah modelhanya ketika mereka mengenali dan
mencurahkan perhatian terhadap fitur-fitur pentingnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l11 level3 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">b.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Proses Penyim<span style="letter-spacing: -.85pt;">panan.</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 92.15pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.35pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Pengaruh
sebuah model akan bergantung pada seberapa baik individu mengingattindakan
model setelah model tersebut tidak lagi tersedia.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l11 level3 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">c.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">P<span style="letter-spacing: -.85pt;">roses Reproduksi
Motor.</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 92.15pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.35pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Setelah seorang melihat sebuah perilaku baru dengan mengamati model,
pengamatan tersebut harus diubah menjadi tindakan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l11 level3 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">d.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">P<span style="letter-spacing: -.85pt;">roses Penegasan.</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 92.15pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.35pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Individu
akan termotivasi untuk menampilkan perilaku yang dicontohkan jika
tersediainsentif positif atau penghargaan yang tegas.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.35pt;">
<span lang="IN">Selain pembelajaran seperti diatas, manajer juga perlu melakukan
pembentukan perilaku karyawan sebagai suatu alat manajerial. Karyawan harus
berperilaku dengan cara-cara yang paling memberi manfaat bagi organisasi.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Ciri dari belajar adalah :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 128.15pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo8; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-language: IN;">belajar
melibatkan perubahan (baik ataupun buruk)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 128.15pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo8; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-language: IN;">perubahan harus
relatif permanen<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 128.15pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo8; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-language: IN;">belajar
berlangsung jika ada perubahan tindakan / perilaku<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 128.15pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo8; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-language: IN;">beberapa bentuk
pengalaman diperlukan untuk belajar. pengalaman dapat diperoleh lewat
pengamatan langsung atau tidak langsung (membaca) atau lewat praktek.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">PRESEPSI</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.35pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Merupakan suatu proses dengan mana
individu-individu mengorganisasikan dan menafsirkan kesan-kesan indera mereka
agar memberikan makna bagi lingkungannya.<br />
distorsi
persepsi (penyimpangan persepsi) :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo5; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><b><i><u><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">persepsi
selektif</span></u></i></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">,</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
orang-orang yang secara selektif menafsirkan apa yang mereka saksikan
berdasarkan kepentingan, latar belakang, pengalaman, dan sikap.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo5; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><b><i><u><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">efek
halo</span></u></i></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">,</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
menarik suatu kesan umum mengenai individu berdasarkan suatu karakteristik
tunggal (kesan pertama)<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo5; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><b><i><u><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">efek
kontras</span></u></i></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">,</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
evaluasi dari karakteristik seseorang yang dipengaruhi oleh perbandingan
dengan orang lain yang baru dijumpai, yang berperingkat lebih tinggi atau
lebih rendah pada karakteristik yang sama.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo5; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><b><i><u><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">proyeksi</span></u></i></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">,</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
menghubungkan karakteristik pribadinya terhadap karakteristik pribadi
orang lain.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo5; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><b><i><u><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">stereotype</span></u></i></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">,</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
menilai seseorang atas dasar persepsi kita terhadap kelompok dari orang
tersebut (menggeneralisasikan)<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">SIKAP<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.35pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Sikap </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">adalah
pernyataan atau pertimbangan evaluatif (menguntungkan atau tidak menguntungkan)
mengenai objek, orang dan peristiwa. Sikap mencerminkan bagaimana seseorang
merasakan mengenai sesuatu. Dalam perilaku organisasi, pemahaman atas sikap
penting. Karena</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">sikap</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">mempengaruhi</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">perilaku</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">kerja. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.35pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Komponen sikap :</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo6; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><b><i><u><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">kognitif</span></u></i></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">,</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> segmen
pendapat atau keyakinan dari suatu sikap <o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo6; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><b><i><u><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">afektif</span></u></i></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">,</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> segmen
emosional dari suatu sikap<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo6; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><b><i><u><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">perilaku</span></u></i></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">, </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">suatu
maksud untuk perilaku dalam suatu cara tertentu terhadap seseorang atau
sesuatu.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">KEPUASAN KERJA<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.35pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Kepuasan kerja </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">adalah suatu
sikap umum seorang individu terhadap pekerjaannya. atau persaan senang atau
tidak senang terhadap pekerjaannya. Kepuasan kerja mempengaruhi sikap.<b><i><o:p></o:p></i></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.35pt;">
<b><i><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Y</span></i></b><b><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">ang menetukan kepuasan kerja </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">meliputi :</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo7; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><i><u><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">kerja yang secara mental menantang</span></u></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">.
kesempatan menggunakan ketrampilan / kemampuan, tugas yang beragam,
kebebasan, dan umpan balik.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo7; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><i><u><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">ganjaran yang pantas</span></u></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">.
sistem upah dan kebijakan promosi yang adil.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo7; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><i><u><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">kondisi kerja yang mendukung</span></u></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">.
lingkungan kerja yang aman, nyaman, fasilitas yang memadai.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo7; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><i><u><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">rekan kerja yang mendukung</span></u></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">. rekan
kerja yang ramah dan mendukung, atasan yang ramah, memahami, menghargai
dan menunjukan keberpihakan kepada bawahan.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo7; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><i><u><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">kesesuaian kepribadian dengan pekerjaan</span></u></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">. bakat
dan kemampuan karyawan sesuai dengan tuntutan pekerjaan.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">kepuasan
kerja yang rendah, mengakibatkan keluhan, absensi, dan tingkat turnover tinggi.
Namun membuat tingkat produktifitas rendah juga.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">PERILAKU ORGANISASI POSITIF <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Perilaku organisasi positif (POB) merujuk pada penelitian dan
penerapan yang berorientasi positif kekuatan sumber daya manusia
dan kapasitas psikologis yang dapat diukur, dikembangkan, dan efektif
untuk peningkatan kinerja di tempat kerja hari ini. Perilaku organisasi
positif yang terbuka untuk pembangunan dan harus sesuatu yang dapat mengukur,
mengembangkan, dan gunakan untuk meningkatkan kinerja . Seperti inti Perilaku
organisasi positif, termasuk harapan, optimisme, dan ketahanan. Perilaku organisasi
positif dapat berkontribusi untuk hasil
organisasi yang positif. Sebagai contoh, harapan, optimisme, dan ketahanan
telah dikaitkan dengan kepuasan kerja yang lebih tinggi, kebahagiaan
kerja, dan komitmen organisasi. Selain itu, karakteristik karyawan positif
seperti optimisme, kebaikan, humor,dan kemurahan hati diharapkan untuk
berhubungan dengan prestasi kerja yang lebih tinggi tingkat <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.75pt; line-height: 150%;">Karakteristik
Perilaku Organisasi adalah :</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.75pt; line-height: 150%;">a.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.75pt; line-height: 150%;">Perilaku<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.75pt; line-height: 150%;">Fokus dari perilaku keorganisasian adalah perilaku
individu dalam organisasi</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">, oleh karenanya harus mampu memahami
perilaku berbagai individu dan<span style="letter-spacing: -.75pt;">organisasi.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo10; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.75pt; line-height: 150%;">b.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.75pt; line-height: 150%;">Struktur <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.75pt; line-height: 150%;">berkaitan dengan hubungan yang bersifat tetap dalam
organisasi,bagaimana suatu pekerjaan dalam organisasi tersebut </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> dirancang, dan bagaimana pekerjaan
diatur.Struktur organisasi berpengaruh besar terhadap perilaku individu atau
orang dalam<span style="letter-spacing: -.75pt;">organisasi serta efektifitas
organisasi</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo10; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">c.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.75pt; line-height: 150%;">Proses </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> proses organisasi
berkaitan dengan interaksi yang terjadi antara anggota <span style="letter-spacing: 2.25pt;">organisasi. </span><span style="letter-spacing: -.75pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Proses organisasi meliputi : komunikasi,kepemimpinan,proses pengambilan
keputusan dan kekuasaan</span><span style="letter-spacing: .75pt;">. Salah satu pertimbangan utama dalam</span>merancang
struktur organisasi adalah agar berbagai proses tersebut dapat berjalan<span style="letter-spacing: -.75pt;">secara efektif dan efisien.</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.75pt; line-height: 150%;">Tujuan
mempelajari perilaku organisasi : <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.75pt; line-height: 150%;">a. Memahami perilaku yang terjadi dalam organisasi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.75pt; line-height: 150%;">b. Dapat meramalkan kejadian-kejadian yang terjadi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.75pt; line-height: 150%;">c. Dapat mengendalikan perilaku-perilaku yang terjadi dalam organisasi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">PSIKOLOGI POSITIF<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Psikologi positif dimulai dengan mengubah penekanan dari hal yang tidak
berharga dalam hidup menjadi studi dan pemahaman terbaik dalam hidup. Tujuan
psikologi positif adalah menggunakan metodologi ilmiah untuk menemukan dan
mempromosikan faktor-faktor yang memungkinkan individu, kelompok, organisasi
dan komunitas berkembang. Hal ini berhubungan dengan memfungsikan manusia
secara optimal, bukannya menfungsikan manusia patologis. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Tiga tingkat psikologi
positif menurut Seligman dan csikszentnihalyi adalah :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">1.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pengalaman subyektif yang berharga.
Perlakuan yang baik, kesenangan hati, kepuasan (di masa lalu), harapan dan
optimism (untuk masa depan), dan kelancaran serta kebahagiaan (sekarang).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">2.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Karakter individu yang positif. Kapasitas
untuk mencintai dan bekerja, keberanian, keahlian interpersonal, sensitifitas,
sensibilitas estetika dan daya tahan memaafkan orisinalitas, pemikiran kedepan
spiritualitas, talenta tinggi, dan kebijaksanaan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">3.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kepentingan dan institusi umum yang
membuat individu menjadi warga Negara yang lebih baik. Tanggung jawab,
pemeliharaan, altruisme, kewarganegaraan, moderat, toleransi dan etika kerja.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Tujuan yang sangat positif tersebut jelas mempunyai implikasi bukan hanya
terapi pendidikan kehidupan keluarga dan masyarakat, tetapi juga untuk kehidupan
dan perilaku organisasi, Psikologi tidak sekedar memperbaiki apa yang salah. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">KRITERIA PERILAKU ORGANISASI POSITIF<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">1.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">OPTIMISME<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Psikologi memperlakukan optimisme sebagai
karakteristik yang berkenaan dengan harapan atas hasil akhir positif. Dampak positif
dari optimisme terhadap kesehatan fisik dan psikologis, karakteristik
ketekunan, prestasi, dan motivasi yang menyebabkan keberhasilan akademis,
olahraga, politik, dan pekerjaan. Di sisi lain, optimisme juga dapat mengalami
kemunduran, disfungsi, dan kerugian.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Optimisme juga sering digunakan dalam
hubungannya dengan konstruksi positif lainya seperti kecerdasan emosi. Misalnya
memberikan perhatian terhadap peranan optimisme mengenai kecerdasan emosi yang
bahkan merujuk optimisme sebagai sikap kecerdasan emosi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">2.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">HARAPAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Definisi harapan menurut C. Rick Snyder adalah keadaan motivasi positif
yang didasarkan pada rasa keberhasilan :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">a.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Agensi (energi terarah pada tujuan)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">b.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Jalan (rencana mencapai tujuan).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dampak positif dari harapan berhubungan
dengan akademis, olahraga, dan kesehatan fisik dan mental. Harapan memiliki
dampak positif terhadap proses wirausaha. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">3.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">KEBAHAGIAAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kebahagiaan didefinisikan sebagai sisi
afektif seseorang (suasana hati dan emosi) dan evaluasi kehidupan mereka.
Kebahagiaan juga banyak dikenal dalam psikologi positif.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Komponen-komponen kebahagiaan dapat
diidentifikasi melalui:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">1.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kepuasan hidup. Penilaian global mengenai
kehidupan seseorang.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">2.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kepuasan dengan domain yang penting.
Contohnya mencangkup kepuasan kerja.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">3.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pengaruh positif. Pengalaman emosi dan
suasana hati yang menyenangkan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">4.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Level pengaruh negatif yang rendah.
Pengalaman emosi dan suasana hati yang sedikit tidak menyenangkan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo12; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">4.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">RESILIENSI<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 34.9pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Resiliensi didefinisikan sebagai fenomena
yang ditandai dengan pola-pola adaptasi positif dalam konteks kesukaran.
Resiliensi dipandang sebagai kapasitas untuk memikul kesukaran, konflik,
kegagalan atau bahkan kejadian positif, kemajuan, dan tanggung jawab yang
meningkat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 34.9pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Resiliensi dipengaruhi oleh tiga faktor :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 88.9pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l15 level1 lfo14; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">a.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Aset<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 88.9pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Resiliensi dapat dikembangkan
dengan meningkatkan aset yang dimiliki seseorang melalui pendidikan, pelatihan,
dan dengan menjaga hubungan sosial, dan secara umum dengan meningkatkan
kualitas sumber daya yang tersedia untuk dimiliki seseorang.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 88.9pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l15 level1 lfo14; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">b.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Resiko<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 88.9pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Faktor resiko dapat dikelola
dengan menjaga kesehatan fisik dan psikologis.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 88.9pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l15 level1 lfo14; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">c.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Proses adaptasi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 88.9pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Proses adaptasi dapat
ditingkatkan dengan mengembangkan kapasitas psikologis positif lainya seperti
efikasi diri, harapan, optimisme, juga dengan mengajarkan bagaimana mengatasi
masalah dengan efektif, managemen stress, pemecahan masalah, dan strategi
pencapaian tujuan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo12; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">5.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">PERCAYA DIRI ATAU EFIKASI DIRI<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 34.9pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Efikasi diri bersifat karakter, karena ia ditunjukan
untuk tugas spesifik dan dapat dilatih dan dikembangkan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Proses efikasi diri mempengaruhi fungsi manusia bukan
hanya secara langsung. Tetapi juga mempunya pengaruh tidak langsung terhadap
faktor lain. Secara langsung proses efikasi diri mulai sebelum individu memilih pilihan mereka dan mengawali usaha mereka. Yang pertama, orang cenderung mempertimbangkan,
mengevaluasi, dan mengintegrasikan informasi mengenai kapabilitas yang
dirasakan. Langkah awal dari proses tersebut tidak begitu berhubungan dengan
kemampuan atau sumber individu, tetapi lebih pada bagaimana mereka menilai atau
meyakini bahwa mereka dapat menggunakan kemampuan dan sumber mereka untuk
menyelesaikan tugas yang diberikan. Selanjutnya, evaluasi atau presepsi
menghasilkan harapan atas efikasi personal yang pada gilirannya menentukan:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 88.9pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo17; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">1.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Keputusan untuk
menampilkan tugas tertentu dalam konteks ini<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 88.9pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo17; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">2.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Sejumlah usaha yang akan dilakukan untuk menyelesaikan
tugas.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 88.9pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo17; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">3.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Tingkat daya tahan yang akan muncul (selain masalah),
tidak sesuai dengan bukti dan kesulitan yang dihadapai.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 34.9pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Efikasi diri secara langsung mempengaruhi
:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 88.9pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo15; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">a.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pemilihan perilaku. (Misalnya dibuat
berdasarkan bagaimana efikasi yang dirasakan seseorang terhadap pilihan seperti
tugas pekerjaan atau bidang karir)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 88.9pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo15; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">b.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Usaha motivasi. (Misalnya orang mencoba
lebih keras dan berusaha melakukan tugas dimana efikasi diri mereka lebih
tinggi daripada mereka yang memiliki efikasi rendah)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 88.9pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo15; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">c.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Daya tahan (Misalnya orang dengan efikasi
diri tinggi akan bangkit, bertahan saat menghadapi masalah atau kegagalan,
sementara orang dengan efikasi diri rendah cenderung menyerah saat muncul
rintangan)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
andygohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12000416256007837858noreply@blogger.com0